Xipe Totec God of Fertility, Death, and Farming

Xipe Totec (pronounced Shee-PAY-toh-teck) was the Aztec god of fertility, abundance, and agricultural renewal, as well as the patron deity of goldsmiths and other craftsmen. Despite that rather calm set of responsibilities, the gods name means Our Lord with the Flayed Skin or Our Lord the Flayed One and ceremonies celebrating Xipe were closely allied with violence and death. Xipe Totecs name was derived from the myth by which the god flayed—peeled and cut off—his own skin to feed humans. For the Aztecs, Xipe Totecs removing his layer of skin symbolized the events that must happen to produce renewed growth that covers the earth each spring. More specifically, flaying is associated with the cycle of American corn (maize) as it sheds its external seed covering when it is ready to germinate. Key Takeaways Xipe Totec (Our Lord the Flayed One) is the Aztec god of fertility, abundance, and agricultural renewalHe is most often illustrated as a priest or shaman wearing the skin of another person  He was one of the four gods who make up the Aztec underworldCult activities in honor of Xipe Totec were the gladiator and arrow sacrifices Xipe and the Cult of Death In Aztec mythology, Xipe was the son of the dual male-female divinity Ometeotl, a powerful fertility god and the most ancient god in the Aztec pantheon. Xipe was one of four gods intimately related to death and the Aztec underworld: Mictlantecuhtli and his feminine counterpart Mictecacihuatl, Coatlicue, and Xipe Totec. The cult of death surrounding these four gods had numerous celebrations throughout the Aztec calendar year that were directly related to death and ancestor worship. In the Aztec cosmos, death was not a thing to be feared, because the afterlife was a continuation of life in another realm. People who died natural deaths reached Mictlan (the underworld) only after the soul passed through nine difficult levels, a four-year-long journey. There they remained forever in the same state that they had lived in. In contrast, people who were sacrificed or died on the battlefield would spend eternity in the realms of the Omeyocan and the Tlalocan, two forms of Paradise. Xipe Cult Activities Cult activities conducted in honor of Xipe Totec included two spectacular forms of sacrifice: the gladiator sacrifice and the arrow sacrifice. The gladiator sacrifice involved tying an especially brave captive warrior to a large, carved circular stone and forcing him to fight a mock battle with an experienced Mexica soldier. The victim was given a sword (macuahuitl) to fight with, but the obsidian blades of the sword were replaced by feathers. His adversary was fully armed and dressed for battle. In the arrow sacrifice, the victim was tied spread-eagled to a wooden frame and then shot full of arrows so that his blood dripped to the ground. Sacrifice and the Flaying of Skin However, Xipe Totec is most often connected with a type of sacrifice Mexican archaeologist Alfredo Là ³pez Austin called owners of skin. The victims of this sacrifice would be killed and then flayed—their skins removed in large pieces. Those skins were painted and then worn by others during a ceremony and in this manner, they would be transformed into the living image (teotl ixiptla) of Xipe Totec. Rituals performed during the early spring month of Tlacaxipeualiztli included the Feast of the Flaying of Men, for which the month was named. The entire city and rulers or nobles of enemy tribes would witness this ceremony. In this ritual, slaves or captive warriors from surrounding tribes were dressed in as the living image of Xipe Totec. Transformed into the god, the victims were led through a series of rituals performing as Xipe Totec, then they were sacrificed and their body parts distributed among the community.   Pan-Mesoamerican Xipe Totec Images Plate depicting god of earth and spring, known as Xipe Totec, Our Lord The Flayed One. Mexico, Mexico City, Museo Nacional de Antropologia (Anthropology Museum), Aztec civilization, 15th century.   DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI / De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images The image of Xipe Totec is easily recognizable in statues, figurines, and other portraits because his body is depicted as completely covered by the skin of a sacrificial victim. The masks used by Aztec priests and other living images portrayed in statuary show dead faces with crescent-shaped eyes and gaping mouths; often the hands of the flayed skin, sometimes decorated as fish scales, drape over the hands of the god. The mouth and lips of flayed Xipe masks stretch widely around the mouth of the impersonator, and sometimes the teeth are bared or the tongue protrudes out somewhat. Often, a painted hand covers the gaping mouth. Xipe wears a red swallowtail headdress with a red ribbon or a conical hat and a skirt of zapote leaves. He wears a flat disc-shaped collar which has been interpreted by some scholars as the neck of the flayed victim and his face is striped with red and yellow bars. Xipe Totec also often holds a cup in one hand and a shield in the other; but in some depictions, Xipe holds a chicahuaztli, a staff terminating in a point with a hollow rattling head filled with pebbles or seeds. In Toltec art, Xipe is associated with bats and sometimes bat icons decorate the statues. Origins of Xipe The Aztec god Xipe Totec was clearly a late version of a pan-Mesoamerican god, with earlier versions of Xipes compelling imagery found in places such as the classic Maya representation on Copan Stela3, and perhaps associated with the Maya God Q, he of violent death and execution. A smashed version of Xipe Totec was also found at Teotihuacan by the Swedish archaeologist Sigvald Linnà ©, exhibiting stylistic characteristics of Zapotec art from Oaxaca state. The four-foot (1.2 meter) tall statue was reconstructed and is currently on display at the Museo Nacional de Antropologia (INAH) in Mexico City. It is thought that Xipe Totec was introduced into the Aztec pantheon during the kingdom of the emperor Axayà ¡catl (ruled 1468–1481). This deity was the patron deity of the city of Cempoala, the capital of the Totonacs during the Postclassic period, and is thought to have been adopted from there.   This article was written by Nicoletta Maestri and edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Ball, Tanya Corissa. The Power of Death: Hierarchy in the Representation of Death in Pre- and Post-Conquest Aztec Codices. Multilingual Discourses 1.2 (2014): 1–34. Print.Bastante, Pamela, and Brenton Dickieson. Nuestra Seà ±ora De Las Sombras: The Enigmatic Identity of Santa Muerte. Journal of the Southwest 55.4 (2013): 435–71. Print.Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Print.Boone, Elizabeth Hill, and Rochelle Collins. The Petroglyphic Prayers on the Sun Stone of Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina. Ancient Mesoamerica 24.2 (2013): 225–41. Print.Drucker-Brown, Susan. Wearing the Virgin of Guadalupe? Cambridge Anthropology 28.2 (2008): 24–44. Print.Lopez Austin, Alfredo. The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1988. Print.Neumann, Franke J. The Flayed God and His Rattle-Stick: A Shamanic Element in Pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican Religion. History o f Religions 15.3 (1976): 251–63. Print.Scott, Sue. Teotihuacan Mazapan Figures and the Xipe Totec Statue: A Link between the Basin of Mexico and the Valley of Oaxaca. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University, 1993. Print.Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. Print.

Racism Discrimination Or Antagonism Directed Against...

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The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is the perfect example of an American classic because it shows: the faults in society, the growth of a character who goes against society, the good in some people, and a unique American voice. To begin, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn shows the faults society had during the late eighteen hundreds hundreds. Throughout the novel Mark Twain shows that many people in society are hypocritical. For example Huckleberry Finn says many times that Jim did something good for an African American. One example that sticks out is the line where Huckleberry says Jim hadShow MoreRelatedDefinition Essay On Racism1005 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout society, the definition of racism varies drastically. Some people would define it as its definition, one race against another, then there are the other uninformed members of society who would define it as blacks against whites, but in all reality it’s any race against another. 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Global Dimension and Perspectives

Question: Discuss about the Global Dimension and Perspectives. Answer: Introduction: The lifestyle choices of Robert as mentioned in case study involves regular smoking, heavy alcoholism and manual functionality alone. The lifestyle choice of smoking contributes to the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Smoking contributes to blood pressure and heart rate increase in the body, it reduces the kidney blood flow further accelerating production of angiotensin II. Smoking also damages arteries branches and renal arteries in kidneys. Further, smoking leads to loss of kidney function (Chambers, Germain Brown, 2010). Zhang et al. (2012) indicated that smoking increases proteinuria risk, the increase of protein release in urine confirms proteinuria. In the case of Robert, large concentrations of protein are detected in his urine. Appel et al. (2010) also supported by stating that people with hypertension and diabetes preferring smoking as lifestyle choice develop CKD risk. Jha et al. (2013) stated that smoking slows down the blood flow rate to vital organs like kid ney leading to worsening of existing diseases in these organs. Another lifestyle choice of Robert is alcoholism that also directly affects kidneys of the body. Zhang et al. (2012) stated that More than four drinks/per day lead to progression of kidney disease. Regular drinking habit possesses the double risk to development of CKD in the body as well as drinking alcohol along with smoking possess five times increased risk to develop CKD compared to people who don't drink alcohol or smoke in excess. Etgen et al. (2012) indicated that kidney works to filter harmful substances of the body where alcohol is one such substance leading to harder functioning of kidney. The drying effect of alcohol damages normal kidney function as well as disrupts the hormonal regulation in the kidney. Cardiovascular disease and diabetes type-2 are considered to be risk factors for chronic kidney diseases. Jha et al. (2013) studied that 30% of type-1 DM and 50% of type-2 DM patients suffers the risk of kidney failure. The high blood sugar level in the body disturbs the filtration performed in the kidney. Excess blood sugar makes kidney filtration harder leading to protein leakage in the urine under serious conditions. The presence of protein in urine indicates kidney failure. Robert is also facing the same situation of high protein concentration in urine. Type -2 diabetes mellitus also causes small blood vessels injuries leading to improper blood cleaning in the kidney. Further, damages to nerves is another effect of type-2 diabetes that leads to difficulty in emptying the bladder supporting kidney failure because the back-up pressure in the bladder can cause major kidney injuries. Zhang et al. (2012) indicated that blood glucose, hypertension, cholesterol and BMI are major risk factors for chronic cardiovascular diseases having much-involved risk to chronic kidney diseases. Levey Coresh (2012) studied that damaged blood vessels due to cardiovascular conditions increase the risk of eye disease, kidney failure, stroke and heart attack. The fat deposition (cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL) in the blood vessels due to cardiovascular diseases hinders the normal filtration process occurring in the kidney. This fat deposition increases the blood pressure leading to improper filtration in kidney glomerulus region. Further, Jha et al. (2013) indicated that in cardiovascular disease generally, the blood vessel confront injuries, blockages and damages that can lead to leakage of substance in kidney provoking kidney failure. The stages of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are determined by the Glomerular Filtration rate (GFR) of the patient. Basically, as per GFR rate there are five stages of chronic kidney disease as described below: - Stage 1 GFR 90ml/min Stage 2 GFR = 60 to 89ml/min Stage 3 GFR = 45 to 59ml/min Stage 4 GFR = 15 to 29ml/min Stage 5 GFR 15ml/min The GFR measurement result of Robert being 11ml/min indicates that he has entered the STAGE -5 of chronic kidney disease. This stage -5 is considered as end-stage of chronic kidney disease named as established renal failure condition. With the GFR value of 15ml/min or less the patient has surely entered the end-stage of renal failure where dialysis or kidney transplant becomes a critical requirement (Fox et al. 2012). According to Hallan et al. (2012) some of the most common symptoms of stage 5 CKD are appetite loss, headaches, weakness, vomiting or nausea, itching, swelling, muscular cramps, skin defects and pigmentation. This indicates that vomiting, nausea and tiredness are regular symptoms of stage 5 CKD, therefore, Robert was facing them as the indication of him entering stage 5 of CKD. As the result of kidneys filtration inability, there is a deposition of toxins, waste products and dirt in the blood that is named as Uremia. This Uremia leads to nausea and vomiting conditions in CKD. Uremia basically occurs only in the stage -5 of CKD. Further, the electrode imbalance in the stage -5 occurs when the kidney is not able to filter phosphate, acids and potassium from the body developing muscular weakness and hence the patient feels tiredness (Fox et al. 2012). This indicates that electrode imbalance and uremic syndrome are a reason for the appearance of nausea, vomiting and tiredness in Roberts health condition. According to Zhang et al. (2012), dialysis is usually recommended when the patient is nearing the stage -5 of CKD where the severe symptoms like uremia, pain, toxin deposition, dyspnea etc. are critically affecting the patients body. Similarly, in case of Robert, dialysis is recommended to manage his critical conditions, symptoms and consequences of the stage -5 CKD. The dialysis will manage Roberts condition by minimising his uremia, electrode imbalance and removal of waste products from his body. The dialysis will remove waste, salts, and excess of water that will minimise uremia and stop the vomiting and nausea of Robert also improve his GFR rate. Dialysis leads to a safe management of chemicals like potassium, bicarbonate, sodium etc. in the blood providing electrode imbalance in the body. In the case of Robert dialysis will help to overcome his tiredness by providing electrode imbalance initiating strength to his body (Chambers, Germain Brown, 2010). Further, Zhang et al. (2012) studied that dialysis also minimises the blood pressure, therefore, it will also help to manage the hypertension condition of Robert. Dialysis perfectly functions as artificial kidney where a special fluid containing clean water and the chemical is used to clean the waste, toxins, salts, water from the blood of the patient in a manner like normal kidney functions (Evolve Trial Investigators, 2012). In this manner dialysis will play a major role to minimise the stage -5 CKD conditions and symptoms as well as hypertension of Robert. References Chambers, E. J., Germain, M., Brown, E. (2010).Supportive care for the renal patient. Oxford University Press. Appel, L. J., Wright Jr, J. T., Greene, T., Agodoa, L. Y., Astor, B. C., Bakris, G. L., ... Gabbai, F. B. (2010). Intensive blood-pressure control in hypertensive chronic kidney disease.New England Journal of Medicine,363(10), 918-929. Etgen, T., Chonchol, M., Forstl, H., Sander, D. (2012). Chronic kidney disease and cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. American journal of nephrology,35(5), 474-482. Evolve Trial Investigators. (2012). Effect of cinacalcet on cardiovascular disease in patients undergoing dialysis.N Engl J Med,2012(367), 2482-2494. Fox, C. S., Matsushita, K., Woodward, M., Bilo, H. J., Chalmers, J., Heerspink, H. J. L., ... Tonelli, M. (2012). Associations of kidney disease measures with mortality and end-stage renal disease in individuals with and without diabetes: a meta-analysis.The Lancet,380(9854), 1662-1673. Hallan, S. I., Matsushita, K., Sang, Y., Mahmoodi, B. K., Black, C., Ishani, A., ... Wetzels, J. F. (2012). Age and association of kidney measures with mortality and end-stage renal disease.Jama,308(22), 2349-2360. Jha, V., Garcia-Garcia, G., Iseki, K., Li, Z., Naicker, S., Plattner, B., ... Yang, C. W. (2013). Chronic kidney disease: global dimension and perspectives. The Lancet,382(9888), 260-272. Levey, A. S., Coresh, J. (2012). Chronic kidney disease.The Lancet, 379(9811), 165-180. Zhang, L., Wang, F., Wang, L., Wang, W., Liu, B., Liu, J., ... Chen, N. (2012). Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in China: a cross-sectional survey.The Lancet,379(9818), 815-822.

Hillary Clinton Essay Example For Students

Hillary Clinton Essay Bill Clinton was born on August 19, 1946 in a town called Hope, with the birthname William Jefferson Blythe. His birth father died in a car accident justthree months before his birth. When he was born his mother sent him to live withhis grandparents, due to the fact that because of the current economy shecouldnt possibly support a child by herself. He lived with his grandparents fortwo years while his mother was away at nursing school in New Orleans trying toadvance her career. His grandparents tried to instill in him strong southernBaptist principles and a desire to get a good education. When Bill was four hismother returned to Hope where she met and married Roger Clinton Sr.. A few yearslater Bill and his family moved to Hot Springs, where despite his Baptistupbringing Bill attended a catholic school. When he was nine years old hechanged schools and went to Ramble Elementary. When Bill was ten Roger ClintonJr. was born, and at age fifteen Bill took his step fathers last name in hop esof helping his mothers troubled relationship. While Bill was growing up in HotSprings, the town was plagued by illegal gambling, but Bill had little contactwith this part of society despite his parents frequent participation in theseillegal practices. As time went by his mothers relationship became more and moreunstable with the alcoholic Roger Clinton Sr.. The relationship turned abusiveand his parents often separated. In high school Bill was a member of the band,student government, honor society and numerous other organizations. One summerat a political summer camp called Boys State, Bill ran for delegate to BoysNation. He won this election and was on his way to Washington to meet John F. Kennedy and Senator William Fulbright. Bill said of his victory as delegate toBoys Nation, I didnt know if I could win a race like that, because when Iwas a student politician, I was about as controversial as I have been in mylater life (Allen pg.10). After meeting JFK and Senator Fulbright face toface, Bill became determined to enter politics. After high school Bill went tothe University of Georgetown where he concentrated on international studies, inorder to prepare himself for the world of politics. While enrolled atGeorgetown, he had to get job to help pay the tuition cost. He took advantage ofthe meeting he had with Senator Fulbright to get a job as Fulbrights assistant. While at school Clinton was awarded a Rhodes scholarship and went to Oxford tostudy for two years. After traveling through Europe and graduating form Oxford,he then went on to study law at Yale in 1971. At this time in his life, Bill didsomething that would come back to haunt him in his political career many yearsdown the road. During the Vietnam war Clinton tried to receive a draft defermentfor his education. Also, despite his hatred for the war enrolled in ROTC. Hefailed to fulfill his enrollment in the program when he realized that if he gota lottery number for the draft, his chances of being called were slim to none. While attending Yale, he met Hillary Rodham and the two started a friendshipthat turned into a relationship. After graduation from Yale Clinton planned onreturning to Hot Springs to set up a small law practice, but on before he leftYale one of his professors suggested that he seek a position as a professor oflaw at the University of Arkansas. Bill thought about this on the way back toArkansas and when he arrived there he called up the University and requested aninterview. After a few tries, he successfully landed a job on the faculty andbegan to teach law at age twenty-eight. In 1974 he decided to run for congressin his district and was narrowly defeated by his elder opponent John PaulHammerschmidt. After this narrow defeat, he received a lot of attention as an upand coming politician. In 1975 Bill and Hillary got married at a house that Billhad just bought. In a small private ceremony, at the wedding reception heannounced his intention to run for office in 1976 but was not positive as towhether he would seek the office of States Attorney General or run again forCongress. In 1976 he ran and was elected to the position of States AttorneyGeneral. His term as